Abstract
The uprisings in the Arab world were driven by various forms of exclusion that have driven multiple groups to mobilize against long-standing authoritarian regimes. However, once in place these uprisings have followed different trajectories and have led to different outcomes. While structural conditions are important, elite decisions and external variables also help explain successful consensus building in Tunisia and Yemen, the resurgence of authoritarianism in Egypt and state breakdown in Libya and in Syria.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abdel Hay, Ahmed Tohami (2002) ‘The Political Orientations of the New Generations’ (in Arabic)’, Al Dimukratiyya 6 (April): 121.
Abdel Khalek, Gouda (2002) ‘Stabilization and Adjustment in Egypt: Sequencing and sustainability’, in Ray Bush (ed.) Counter-Revolution in Egypt’s Countryside: Land and farmers in the era of economic reform, 33–57. London: Zed Books.
Ahmed, Masood (2012) ‘Youth Unemployment in the MENA Region: Determinants and challenges’, Published in the World Economic Forum’s Addressing the 100 Million Youth Challenge – Perspectives on Youth Employment in the Arab World in 2012, June, World Economic Forum.
Alvarez-Ossoria, Ignacio (2013) ‘Evolution and Outlook of the Syrian Crisis’, IEMED Mediterranean Yearbook. Barcelona, Spain: IEMED.
Assaad, Ragui and Frazaneh Roudi-Fahimi (2007) Youth in the Middle East and North Africa: Demographic opportunity or challenge. Washington DC: Population Reference Bureau.
Assaad, Ragui and Ghada Barsoum (2007) ‘Youth Exclusion in Egypt: In search of second chances’, The Middle East Youth Initiative Working Paper, Number 2, September, Wolfenson Center for Development, Dubai School of Government.
Ayubi, Nazih (1996) Overstating the Arab State: Politics and society in the middle east. London: I.B. Tauris.
Barret Holzapfel, Philip (2014) ‘Yemen’s Transition Process: Between fragmentation and transformation, peaceworks’, March, No.95, United States Institute of Peace, http://www.usip.org/publications/yemen-in-transition-between-fragmentation-and-transformation.
Bellin, Eva (2013) ‘Drivers of Democracy: Lessons from Tunisia’, Middle East Brief, Crown Center for Middle East Studies, Brandeis University, No.75, August, http://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/meb/meb75.html.
Bellin, Mohamed Kerrou (2014) ‘Tunisia’s Historic Step toward Democracy’, Carnegie Middle East Center, 22 April, http://carnegie-mec.org/2014/04/17/tunisia-s-historic-step-toward-democracy/h8sv.
Bengio, Ofra and Gabriel Ben Dor (1999) Minorities and the State in the Arab World. London: Lynn Rienner.
Billingsley, Anthony (2009) Political Succession in the Arab World: Constitutions, family loyalties and Islam. London: Routledge.
Blanchard, Christopher M. (2014) ‘Libya: Transition and U.S. policy’, Congressional Research Service, 29 March, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33142.pdf.
Boukhars, Anouar, Nathan J. Brown, Michele Dunne, Marwan Muasher, Frederic Wehrey, Katherine Wilkens and Scott Williamson (2014) ‘The Egypt Effect: Sharpened tensions, reshuffled alliances’, Carnegie Middle East Center, 13 February, http://carnegieendowment.org/2014/02/13/egypt-effect-sharpened-tensions-reshuffled-alliances/h0tb.
Brumberg, Daniel (1992) ‘Survival Strategies vs. Democratic Bargains: The politics of economic reform in contemporary Egypt’, in Henry Barkey (ed.) The Politics of Economic Reform in the Middle East, 73–104. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Brumberg, Daniel (1998) ‘Authoritarian Legacies and Reform Strategies in the Arab World’, in Rex Brynen, Bahgat Korany and Paul Noble (eds.) Political Liberalization and Democratization in the Arab World, 229–261. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Brumberg, Daniel (2013) ‘The Resurgence of the Egyptian State’, Foreign Policy, 18 July, http://mideastafrica.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2013/07/08/the_resurgence_of_the_egyptian_state.
Cantori, Louis J., Tim Jacoby, Sheila Carapico, Samer Shehata, Ellen Lust–Okar, Banu Bargu–Hasturk, Glenn E. Robinson and Ebtesam Al–Kitbi (2002) ‘Political Succession in the Middle East’, Middle East Policy 9 (3): 105–123.
Chayes, Sarah (2014) ‘How a Leftist Labor Union Helped Force Tunisia’s Political Settlement’, Carnegie Middle East Center, 27 March, http://carnegieendowment.org/2014/03/27/how-leftist-labor-union-helped-force-tunisia-s-political-settlement/h610.
Diamond, Larry (2011) ‘A Fourth Wave or False Start’, Foreign Affairs, 22 May, http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67862/larry-diamond/a-fourth-wave-or-false-start.
Henry, M. and Robert Springborg (2001) Globalization and the Politics of Development in the Middle East. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Heydemann, Steven (2004) Networks of Privilege in the Middle East: The politics of economic reform revisited. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Holzapfel, Erica Gaston (2014) ‘Process Learned in Yemen’s National Dialogue’, United States Institute of Peace Special Report, February, http://www.usip.org/publications/process-lessons-learned-in-yemen-s-national-dialogue.
Ibrahim, Saad Eddin (1994) Religious Groups, Sects, and Races: The grievances of minorities in the Arab world, (in Arabic). Cairo, Egypt: Ibn Khaldun Center.
International Crisis Group (2011) ‘Popular Protest In North Africa and The Middle East (VII): The Syrian regime’s slow-motion suicide’, Middle East/North Africa Report No. 109, 13 July, International Crisis Group, http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/egypt-syria-lebanon/syria/109-popular-protest-in-north-africa-and-the-middle-east-vii-the-syrian-regimes-slow-motion-suicide.aspx.
International Crisis Group (2012) ‘Yemen: Enduring conflicts, threatened transitions’, Middle East Report N125, 3 July: International Crisis Group, http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/iraq-iran-gulf/yemen/125-yemen-enduring-conflicts-threatened-transition.aspx.
Jenkins, Brian Michael (2014) ‘The Dynamics of Syria’s Civil War, Perspective’, Rand Corporation, http://www.rand.org/pubs/perspectives/PE115.html.
Kienle, Eberhard (2001) A Grand Delusion: Democracy and economic reform in Egypt. London: I.B. Tauris.
Kienle, Eberhard (ed.) (2003) Politics from Below Politics from Above: The Middle East in the age of economic reform. London: Saqi.
Lacher, Wolfram (2011) ‘Familiies, Tribes and Cities in the Libyan Revolution’, Middle East Policy Council XVIII (4): 140–154.
Population Council (2010) Survey of Young People in Egypt, Preliminary Report, February, http://www.popcouncil.org/uploads/pdfs/2010PGY_SYPEPrelimReport.pdf.
Salehi-Isfahani, Djavad and Navtej Dhillon (2008) ‘Stalled Youth Transitions in the Middle East: A framework for policy reform’, The Middle East Youth Initiative Working Paper, Number 8, October, Wolfenson Center for Development, Dubai School of Government.
Shehata, Dina (2011) ‘The Fall of the Pharaoh: How Husni Mubarak reign came to an end’, Foreign Affairs, May/June, http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67687/dina-shehata/the-fall-of-the-pharaoh.
Shehata, Dina (2012) ‘Youth Movements and the 25 January Revolution’, in Bahgat Korany and Rabab El-Mahdi (eds.) Arab Spring in Egypt: Revolution and beyond. Cairo, Egypt: American University Press.
Shehata, Dina and Mariam Waheed (2011) ‘Drivers of Change in the Arab World’ (in Arabic), Al Siyyassa al Dawliyya, April, http://digital.ahram.org.eg/articles.aspx?Serial=473109&eid=6729.
Soliman, Samer (1999) State and Industrial Capitalism in Egypt. Cairo, Egypt: American University Press.
Soliman, Samer (2005) The Strong Regime and the Weak State: Managing the fiscal crisis and political change under Mubarak. Cairo, Egypt: Merit Publishers (in Arabic).
Stetter, Stephan (2012) The Middle East and Globalization: Encounters and horizons. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
World Bank (2007) Youth-An Undervalued Asset: Towards a New Agenda in the Middle East and North Africa-progress, challenges and way forward. Washington DC: World Bank.
World Bank (2010) ‘Poor Place, Thriving People: How the Middle East and North Africa can rise above spatial disparities’, MENA Development Report, The World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2011/01/13553081/poor-places-thriving-people-middle-east-north-africa-can-rise-above-spatial-disparities.
Youth Orientations Survey (2004) Unpublished Report, Al Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies.
Additional information
Compares the unfolding of the Arab uprisings in different states, identifying some of the factors which has lead to different outcomes to date
