Skip to main content
Log in

Better Marginalised than Incorporated? Pastoralist Livelihoods in Somali Region, Ethiopia

  • Original Article
  • Published:
The European Journal of Development Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Recent droughts have revived debates about the viability of pastoralist livelihoods in the Horn of Africa. Responding to a perceived crisis of pastoralist reproduction, the Ethiopian government is advocating sedentarisation, but critics argue that this is an opportunistic attempt to extend the regime's control over an insubordinate minority. Pastoralists in Somali Region are in the paradoxical position of being wealthier than highland farmers but politically excluded, geographically isolated and intensely vulnerable to livelihood shocks – natural (droughts), economic (livestock import bans by the Gulf States, government crackdowns on ‘contraband’ trade) or socio-political (conflict between clans, or between militia groups and the state). In this highly politicised context, the voices of pastoralists themselves are often ignored. Based on fieldwork in Somali Region in 2005, this article argues that ‘living on the margins’ – excluded by and beyond the reach of the state, yet resisting incorporation – is the source of both pastoralist wealth and pastoralist vulnerability.

Les sécheresses qui ont récemment frappé la Corne de l′Afrique ont relancé les débats sur la viabilité des modes de vie pastorale dans cette partie du continent. Pour répondre à ce qui est perçu comme une crise de reproduction pastorale, le gouvernement éthiopien préconise la sédentarisation des éleveurs. Les critiques affirment que cette politique est une tentative opportuniste par le régime de renforcer son contrôle sur les minorités rebelles du pays. Les éleveurs nomades de la Région Somali se trouvent dans la situation paradoxale d′être plus riches que les agriculteurs des régions montagneuses, mais d′être exclus politiquement, isolés géographiquement, et fortement vulnérables aux crises de subsistance, qu′elles soient naturelles (sécheresses) économiques (embargos sur les importations de bétails par les États du Golfe, lutte sévère du gouvernement contre le commerce de ‘contrebande’), ou socio-politiques (affrontements entre les différents clans, ou entre les milices locales et les autorités). Dans ce contexte fortement politisé, les voix des communautés pastorales sont souvent ignorées. À partir d′un travail de terrain effectué en 2005 dans la Région Somali, cette étude cherche à montrer que le mode de vie « en marge » caractérisant les peuples pastoraux car ils sont exclus par l′État et hors de sa portée, et résistent pourtant à l′intégration, explique à la fois leur richesse et leur vulnérabilité.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Figure 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. A full presentation of findings can be found in Devereux (2006).

References

  • Babiker, M. (2006) African pastoralism through anthropological eyes: Whose crisis? In: M. Ntarangwi, D. Mills and M. Babiker (eds.) African Anthropologies: History, Critique and Practice. Dakar; London: CODESRIA and Zed Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borchgrevink, A. (2008) Limits to donor influence: Ethiopia, aid and conditionality. Forum for Development Studies 35 (2): 195–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, M. and Barrett, C. (2006) The economics of poverty traps and persistent poverty: An asset-based approach. Journal of Development Studies 42 (2): 178–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, M. and Barrett, C. (2007) Asset thresholds and social protection: A think-piece. IDS Bulletin 38 (3): 34–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clay, D., Molla, D. and Habtewold, D. (1999) Food aid targeting in Ethiopia: A study of who needs it and who gets it. Food Policy 24 (4): 391–409.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Devereux, S. (2004) Food security issues in Ethiopia: Comparisons and contrasts between lowland and highland areas. Pastoralist Communication Initiative (PCI) Special Seminar. Addis Ababa: UN-OCHA.

  • Devereux, S. (2006) Vulnerable Livelihoods in Somali Region, Ethiopia. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies. IDS Research Report 57.

  • Devereux, S. and Scoones, I. (2006) The crisis of pastoralism? A response to Stephen Sandford. Future Agricultures Consortium Debate. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, http://www.future-agricultures.org/pdf%20files/The_crisis_of_pastoralism.pdf.

  • Ellis, J. and Swift, D. (1988) Stability of African pastoral ecosystems: Alternative paradigms and implications for development. Journal of Range Management 41 (6): 450–459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ethiopian Custom Authority (ECA). (2009) Mission statement, http://www.ethiomarket.com/ecua/index.htm, accessed 14 November 2009.

  • Farah, A. (1995) Permanent Agricultural Settlements along the Webi Shabelle River in Gode Zone of the Ethiopian Somali National Regional State. Addis Ababa: United Nations Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia (UN-EUE).

    Google Scholar 

  • Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE). (1998) The 1994 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia: Results for Somali Region, Volume I – Statistical Report. Addis Ababa: Office of Population and Housing Census Commission, Central Statistical Authority.

  • Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE). (2002a) Development and Poverty Profile of Ethiopia for 2002. Addis Ababa: Welfare Monitoring Unit, Ministry of Finance and Economic Development.

  • Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE). (2002b) Statement on Pastoral Development Policy. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Federal Affairs.

  • Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE). (2008a) Summary and Statistical Report of the 2007 Population and Housing Census: Population Size by Age and Sex. Addis Ababa: Population Census Commission.

  • Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE). (2008b) Draft Policy Statement for the Sustainable Development of Pastoral and Agro-Pastoral Areas of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Federal Affairs.

  • FEWS NET. (2005) Outlook for Pastoral Areas in the Horn of Africa. Washington DC: FEWS NET.

  • Food Security Analysis Unit (FSAU). (2004) Post Gu Analysis. Nairobi: FSAU. Technical Series Report, IV(2).

  • Hagmann, T. (2005) Beyond clannishness and colonialism: Understanding political disorder in Ethiopia's Somali Region, 1991–2004. Journal of Modern African Studies 43 (4): 509–536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hagmann, T. and Khalif, M. (2006) State and politics in Ethiopia's Somali Region since 1991. Bildhaan: An International Journal of Somali Studies 6: 25–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halderman, M. (2004) The Political Economy of Pro-Poor Livestock Policy-Making in Ethiopia. Rome: FAO. PPLPI Working Paper 19.

  • Hammond, L. (2008) Strategies of invisibilization: How Ethiopia's resettlement programme hides the poorest of the poor. Journal of Refugee Studies 21 (4): 517–536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoben, A. (1995) Paradigms and politics: The cultural construction of environmental policy in Ethiopia. World Development 23 (6): 1007–1021.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howe, P. (2007) Priority regimes and famine. In: S. Devereux (ed.) The New Famines. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Human Rights Watch. (2008) Collective Punishment: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity in the Ogaden area of Ethiopia's Somali Regional State. New York: Human Rights Watch.

  • International Food Policy Research Institute and Central Statistical Agency. (2006) Atlas of the Ethiopian Rural Economy. Washington, DC; Addis Ababa: IFPRI; CSA.

  • Kabeer, N. (1994) Reversed Realities: Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought. London: Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabeer, N. (2008) Gender Mainstreaming in Social Protection for the Informal Economy. London: Commonwealth Secretariat.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kanbur, R. (2007) Conceptualising economic marginalisation. Paper prepared for the conference Living on the Margins. Stellenbosch, South Africa, 26–28 March.

  • Lautze, S. and Maxwell, D. (2007) Why do famines persist in the Horn of Africa? Ethiopia, 1999–2003. In: S. Devereux (ed.) The New Famines. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lautze, S., Aklilu, Y., Raven-Roberts, A., Young, H., Kebede, G. and Leaning, J. (2003) Risk and Vulnerability in Ethiopia: Learning from the Past, Responding to the Present, Preparing for the Future. Boston, MA: Feinstein International Famine Centre.

    Google Scholar 

  • Little, P., Smith, K., Cellarius, B., Coppock, D. and Barrett, C. (2001) Avoiding disaster: Diversification and risk management among East African Herders. Development and Change 32: 401–433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lister, S. (2004) The Processes and Dynamics of Pastoralist Representation in Ethiopia. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies. IDS Working Paper 220.

  • Maxwell, D. (2002) Why do famines persist? A brief review of Ethiopia 1999–2000. IDS Bulletin 33 (4): 48–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menkhaus, K. (2003) Bantu ethnic identity in Somalia. In: Centre Français d′Études Éthiopiennes (ed.) Annales d′Éthiopie. Addis Abeba: Editions Table Ronde, pp. 323–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mogues, T., Ayele, G. and Paulos, Z. (2008) The Bang for the Birr: Public Expenditures and Rural Welfare in Ethiopia. Washington DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. IFPRI Research Report 160.

  • National Election Board (NEB). (2004) Registration of Voters and Summary of the Results by Wereda of January [Tere] 16, 1996 (E.C.) Elections in Somali Region. Addis Ababa: National Election Board.

  • Nin-Pratt, A., Jabbar, M. and Ehui, S. (2009) Benefits and costs of compliance of sanitary regulations in livestock markets: The case of Rift Valley Fever in the Somali Region of Ethiopia. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture 48 (3): 219–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rich, K., Perry, B. and Kaitibie, S. (2009) Commodity-based trade and market access for developing country livestock products: The case of beef exports from Ethiopia. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review 12 (3): 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salama, P., Assefa, F., Talley, L., Spiegel, P., van der Veen, A. and Gotway, C. (2001) Malnutrition, measles, mortality, and the humanitarian response during a famine in Ethiopia. Journal of the American Medical Association 286 (5): 563–571.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sandford, S. (2004) Comments on substance of report of low-level aerial survey of Somali Region, mimeo.

  • Sandford, S. (2006) Too many people, too few livestock: the crisis affecting pastoralists in the Greater Horn of Africa. Future Agricultures Consortium Debate. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, http://www.future-agricultures.org/pdffiles/Sandford_thesis.pdf.

  • Sandford, S. and Habtu, Y. (2000) Report of the Pastoral Appraisal Team on Emergency Response Interventions in Pastoral Areas of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: DFID Ethiopia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sen, A. (1998) Mortality as an indicator of economic success and failure. The Economic Journal 108 (446): 1–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Umar, A. (2007) Risk-taking for a Living: Trade and Marketing in Somali Region, Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: UNOCHA Pastoralist Communication Initiative (PCI).

    Google Scholar 

  • UN-OCHA. (2004) Resettling the Food Insecure: Experiences in SNNPR. Addis Ababa: UN-OCHA.

  • Whitehead, A. (1998) Gender, Poverty and Intra-household Relations in Sub-Saharan Africa Small Holder Households: Some Lessons from Two Case Examples. Background paper for 1998 Status of Poverty in Africa Report.

  • Wood, G. (1999) Adverse Incorporation: Another Dark Side of Social Capital. Bath: University of Bath. Global Social Policy Working Paper 2.

Download references

Acknowledgements

A version of this article was presented at the international conference ‘Living on the Margins’: Vulnerability, Social Exclusion and the State in the Informal Economy, Cape Town, South Africa, 26–28 March 2007. I am grateful to Abdi Umar for teaching me about Somali culture, and to Tobias Hagmann and two anonymous referees for their thoughtful and rigorous critiques of earlier drafts.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Devereux, S. Better Marginalised than Incorporated? Pastoralist Livelihoods in Somali Region, Ethiopia. Eur J Dev Res 22, 678–695 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2010.29

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2010.29

Keywords

Navigation