Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

the supranational dimension of voting in national elections across six european democracies: rethinking albert hirschman’s exit, voice and loyalty

  • Research
  • Published:
European Political Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This article examines Albert Hirschman’s exit, voice and loyalty hypothesis within a supranational context. It makes use of an original 2012 data set drawn from ‘The Europeanisation of Everyday Life: Cross-border Practices and Transnational Identities among EU and Third Country Citizens’ (EUCROSS) project, which was conducted across six European Union (EU) democracies. The article finds that supranational loyalty to an entity other than one’s own nation state enhances citizen participation in national elections, while greater transnational mobility has no significant impact on national voter turnout. These findings have two important implications. First, supranational loyalties do not always discourage individuals from honouring their national political commitments. Second, member state nationals who are loyal to the EU may not show up at the supranational ballot box if national institutions are perceived to be more powerful to influence decision-making in Brussels.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Figure 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. For declining level of public support for the EU based on a 2013 Eurobarometer survey, see Traynor (2013).

  2. See the supplementary materials for a detailed breakdown of these questions.

  3. Cronbach’s alpha score is a measure of consistency among the items included in the index and shows how closely these items are related to each other.

  4. See Table 7 in supplementary materials.

  5. For example, Raunio and Wiberg (2009) find that national political platforms of member countries are increasingly occupied by issues pertaining to the EU even though national political parties are less cohesive on European integration (Raunio, 2011).

References

  • Anderson, C.J. and Beramendi, P. (2012) ‘Left parties, poor voters and electoral participation in advanced industrialized societies’, Comparative Political Studies 45 (6): 714–746.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arceneaux, K. and Nickerson, D.W. (2009) ‘Who is mobilized to vote? A re-analysis of 11 field experiments’, American Journal of Political Science 53 (1): 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barry, B. (1974) ‘Review article: Exit, voice, and loyalty’, British Journal of Political Science 4 (01): 79–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartolini, S. (2015) Restructuring Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birch, A.H. (1975) ‘Economic models in political science: The case of “exit voice, and loyalty”’, British Journal of Political Science 5 (01): 69–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blais, A. (2000) To Vote Or Not to Vote?: The Merits and Limits of Rational Choice Theory, Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brady, H.E., Verba, S. and Schlozman, K. (1995) ‘Beyond Ses: a resource model of political participation’, American Political Science Review 89 (2): 271–294.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D.E. (2009) ‘Civic engagement and education: An empirical test of the sorting model’, American Journal of Political Science 53 (4): 771–786.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Canovan, M. (2000) ‘Patriotism is not enough’, British Journal of Political Science 30 (3): 413–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carey, S. (2002) ‘Undivided loyalties is national identity an obstacle to European integration?’ European Union Politics 3 (4): 387–413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cutler, N.E. and Bengtson, V.L. (1974) ‘Age and political alienation: Maturation, generation and period effects’, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 415 (1): 160–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delanty, G. (2003) ‘Loyalty and the European Union’, in M. Waller and A. Linklater (eds.) Political Loyalty and the Nation-State, London: Routledge, pp. 123–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denver, D. (2008) ‘Another reason to support marriage? Turnout and the decline of marriage in Britain’, The British Journal of Politics & International Relations 10 (4): 666–680.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dowding, K., John, P., Mergoupis, T. and Van Vugt, M. (2000) ‘Exit, voice and loyalty: Analytic and empirical developments’, European Journal of Political Research 37 (4): 469–495.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dyck, J.J. and Gimpel, J.G. (2005) ‘Distance, turnout, and the convenience of voting’, Social Science Quarterly 86 (3): 531–548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Egeberg, M. (1999) ‘Transcending intergovernmentalism? Identity and role perceptions of national officials in EU decision-making’, Journal of European Public Policy 6 (3): 456–474.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farrell, D. (1983) ‘Exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect as responses to job dissatisfaction: A multidimensional scaling study’, Academy of Management Journal 26 (4): 596–607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, S., Phillips, L.L., Hobolt, S.B. and Curtice, J. (2008) ‘Disengaging voters? Do plurality systems discourage the less knowledgeable from voting?’ Electoral Studies 27 (1): 89–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, J. and Curtis, A.K. (2012) ‘Partisan discord in the family and political engagement: A comparative behavioral analysis’, The Journal of Politics 74 (01): 129–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, H.J. (2006) ‘Altruism and turnout’, Journal of Politics 68 (3): 674–683.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, M.N. and Hobolt, S. (2011) ‘The legacy of lethargy: How elections to the European Parliament depress turnout’, Electoral Studies 30 (1): 67–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallego, A. (2010) ‘Understanding unequal turnout: Education and voting in comparative perspective’, Electoral Studies 29 (2): 239–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerber, A.S., Green, D.P. and Larimer, C.W. (2008) ‘Social pressure and voter turnout: Evidence from a large-scale field experiment’, American Political Science Review 102 (01): 33–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerber, A.S., Green, D.P. and Shachar, R. (2003) ‘Voting may be habit-forming: Evidence from a randomized field experiment’, American Journal of Political Science 47 (3): 540–550.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerber, A.S. and Rogers, T. (2009) ‘Descriptive social norms and motivation to vote: Everybody’s voting and so should you’, The Journal of Politics 71 (01): 178–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goerres, A. (2007) ‘Why are older people more likely to vote? The impact of ageing on electoral turnout in Europe’, The British Journal of Politics & International Relations 9 (1): 90–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gomez, B.T. and Wilson, M.J. (2001) ‘Political sophistication and economic voting in the American electorate: A theory of heterogeneous attribution’, American Journal of Political Science 45 (4): 899–914.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, S.B. and Segura, G.M. (1997) ‘Cross-national variation in the political sophistication of individuals: Capability or choice?’ Journal of Politics 59 (1): 126–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, J.W. and Keeley, M. (1992) ‘Hirschman’s loyalty construct’, Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal 5 (3): 191–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Habermas, J. (1996) Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Highton, B. (2000) ‘Residential mobility, community mobility, and electoral participation’, Political Behavior 22 (2): 109–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hillygus, D.S. (2005) ‘The missing link: Exploring the relationship between higher education and political engagement’, Political Behavior 27 (1): 25–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirschman, A.O. (1970) Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirschman, A.O. (1978) ‘Exit, voice, and the state’, World Politics 31 (01): 90–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirschman, A.O. (1993) ‘Exit, voice, and the fate of the German democratic republic: An essay in conceptual history’, World Politics 45 (02): 173–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hobolt, S., Spoon, J.J. and Tilley, J. (2009) ‘A vote against Europe? Explaining defection at the 1999 and 2004 European parliament elections’, British Journal of Political Science 39 (1): 93–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inglehart, R. and Rabier, J.R. (1978) ‘Economic Uncertainty and European Solidarity: Public Opinion Trends’, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 440 (1): 66–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jankowski, T.B. and Strate, J.M. (1995) ‘Modes of participation over the adult life span’, Political Behavior 17 (1): 89–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kingston, P.W. and Finkel, S.E. (1987) ‘Is there a marriage gap in politics?’ Journal of Marriage and Family 49 (1): 57–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LaPonce, J. (1974) ‘Hirschman’s voice and exit model as spatial archetype’, Social Science Information 13 (3): 67–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lijphart, A. (1997) ‘Unequal participation: Democracy’s unresolved dilemma’, The American Political Science Review 91 (1): 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luskin, R.C. (1987) ‘Measuring political sophistication’, American Journal of Political Science 34 (1): 856–899.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pacek, A. and Radcliff, B. (1995) ‘Turnout and the vote for left-of-centre parties: A cross-national analysis’, British Journal of Political Science 25 (1): 137–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pacheco, J.S. (2008) ‘Political socialization in context: The effect of political competition on youth voter turnout’, Political Behavior 30 (4): 415–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panagopoulos, C. (2010) ‘Affect, social pressure and prosocial motivation: Field experimental evidence of the mobilizing effects of pride, shame and publicizing voting behavior’, Political Behavior 32 (3): 369–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panagopoulos, C. (2011) ‘Thank You for Voting: Gratitude Expression and Voter Mobilization’, Journal of Politics 73 (3): 707–717.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plutzer, E. (2002) ‘Becoming a habitual voter: Inertia, resources, and growth in young adulthood’, American Political Science Review 96 (01): 41–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radcliff, B. (1994) ‘Reward without punishment: Economic conditions and the vote’, Political Research Quarterly 47 (3): 721–731.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radcliff, B. and Davis, P. (2000) ‘Labor organization and electoral participation in industrial democracies’, American Journal of Political Science. 44 (1): 132–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raunio, T. (2011) ‘The gatekeepers of European integration? The functions of national parliaments in the EU political system’, Journal of European Integration 33 (3): 303–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raunio, T. and Wiberg, M. (2009) ‘How to measure the Europeanisation of a national legislature’, Scandinavian Political Studies 33 (1): 74–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riker, W.H. and Ordeshook, P.C. (1968) ‘A theory of the calculus of voting’, The American Political Science Review 62 (1): 25–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubenson, D., Blais, B., Fournier, P., Gidengil, E. and Nevitte, N. (2007) ‘Does low turnout matter? Evidence from the 2000 Canadian Federal Election’, Electoral Studies 26 (3): 589–597.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salamońska, J., Baglioni, L. and Recchi, E. (2013) ‘Navigating the European space: Physical and virtual forms of cross-border mobility among EU Citizens’, EUCROSS working paper 5, available at: http://www.eucross.eu/cms/index.php?option=com_docman&task=cat_view&gid=7&Itemid=157.

  • Sandell, J. and Plutzer, E. (2005) ‘Families, divorce and voter turnout in the US’, Political Behavior 27 (2): 133–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shklar, J. (1993) ‘Obligation, loyalty, exile’, Political Theory 21 (2): 181–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smets, K. and van Ham, C. (2013) ‘The embarrassment of riches? A meta-analysis of individual-level research on voter turnout’, Electoral Studies 32 (2): 344–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solt, F. (2008) ‘Economic inequality and democratic political engagement’, American Journal of Political Science 52 (1): 48–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Squire, P., Wolfinger, R.E. and Glass, D.P. (1987) ‘Residential mobility and voter turnout’, The American Political Science Review 81 (1): 45–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Studlar, D.T., Flickenger, R. and Bennett, S. (2003) ‘Turnout in European parliament elections: Towards a European‐centred model’, British Elections & Parties Review 13 (1): 195–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swaddle, K. and Heath, A. (1989) ‘Official and reported turnout in the British general election of 1987’, British Journal of Political Science 19 (4): 537–551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Traynor, I. (2013) ‘Crisis for Europe as trust hits record low’, The Guardian, 24 April, available at: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/24/trust-eu-falls-record-low.

  • Trondal, J. (2002) ‘Beyond the EU membership-non-membership dichotomy? Supranational identities among national EU decision-makers’, Journal of European Public Policy 9 (3): 468–487.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verba, S. and Nie, N.H. (1972) Participation in America: Political Democracy and Social Equality, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verba, S., Lehman Schlozman, K. and Brady, H.E. (1995) Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was conducted as a part of ‘The Europeanisation of Everyday Life: Cross-border Practices and Transnational Identities among EU and Third Country Citizens’ (EUCROSS) project, funded by the 7th framework programme (Socio-economic Sciences and Humanities, Activity 8.5. The Citizen in the European Union, Section 8.5.2. Diversities and Commonalities in Europe). I would like to thank Juan Diez Medrano, Ettore Recchi, Adrian Favell, Laurie Hanquinet, Steffen Poetschke, Irina Ciornei, Teresa Kuhn, Javier Polavieja, Dimitru Sandu, Michael Braun, Mike Savage, participants at the EUCROSS panels at the Council for European Studies Conference (2014), all the EUCROSS team members, the two anonymous reviewers and the editorial committee for their comments and feedback on earlier versions of this article. All remaining errors are my own.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institut Barcelona d’Estudis Internacionals, Ramon Trias Fargas 25-27, Barcelona, Spain, 08005

    fulya apaydin

Authors
  1. fulya apaydin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

Supplementary information accompanies this article on the European Political Science website (www.palgrave-journals.com/eps)

Electronic supplementary material

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

apaydin, f. the supranational dimension of voting in national elections across six european democracies: rethinking albert hirschman’s exit, voice and loyalty. Eur Polit Sci 15, 73–88 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1057/eps.2015.37

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/eps.2015.37

Keywords

Search

Navigation