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The social construction of terrorism: media, metaphors and policy implications

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Abstract

The article illustrates a constructivist understanding of studying terrorism and counter-terrorism by applying metaphor analysis to a British tabloid media discourse on terrorism between 2001 and 2005 in The Sun newspaper. It identifies four conceptual metaphors constituting terrorism as a war, a crime, an uncivilised evil and as a disease, and it illustrates how these understandings make certain counter-terrorism policies such as a military response, judicial measures or immigration policies acceptable while at the same time excluding from consideration other options, such as negotiations. It thereby re-emphasises that a metaphorical understanding of political phenomena such as terrorism can give International Relations insights into how certain policies become possible while others remain outside of the range of options thought to be appropriate.

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Notes

  1. See, for example, the Researching and Applying Metaphor (RaAM) Association conferences, http://www.raam.org.uk/ (accessed 11 January, 2012).

  2. See, for example, Metaphor and Symbol, which is in its 22nd year of publication and was previously called Metaphor and Symbolic Activity.

  3. For research on metaphors of terrorism in Germany, see Spencer (2011).

  4. In particular, Stump's (2009) criticism of Hülsse and Spencer's (2008) limited focus on textual metaphors, and neglect of ‘everyday practices’ is an important point that deserves acknowledgement. However, I would argue that any non-linguistic practice has to be interpreted linguistically at some point, as, for example, signs do not speak for themselves. ‘Practices are discursive’, both in the sense that some practices involve speech acts … and in the sense that practice cannot be thought “outside of” discourse’ (Neumann 2002: 628).

  5. For a more nuanced discussion on the distinction between the neo-positivist causation offered by King et al. (1994) and ‘singular causal analysis’ based on Max Weber, see Jackson (2006b).

  6. For more of the debate on causation in IR, see, for example, Wendt (1998) or Kurki (2006).

  7. For an analysis of fear and insecurity after 9/11 portrayed in tabloids, see Debrix (2007).

  8. For a previous study on metaphors of terrorism in The Sun newspaper, see Hülsse and Spencer (2008), and for a comparison between the British The Sun and the German Bild, see Spencer (2010).

  9. See Newspaper Marketing Agency, ‘The Sun — Facts and Figures’, http://www.nmauk.co.uk/nma/do/live/factsAndFigures?newspaperID=17 (accessed 25 November, 2010).

  10. It is important to point out that the social and political context of the data, such as the ideological orientation of the newspaper, does not play a major role in the article's analysis. As mentioned above, it is concerned mainly with the resulting ‘realities’ of metaphor use rather than the reasons for why particular metaphors are used. Furthermore, The Sun newspaper serves as an example as many of the following metaphors can also be found in other media outlets and political statements.

  11. The bombings in Bali can also be considered an attack on the West as it mainly targeted Western tourists.

  12. Apart from these four metaphors, one conceptual metaphor found in the data (Terrorism is Natural) has been omitted due to a lack of space. For further details on this metaphor, see Spencer (2010).

  13. The following metaphors are examples of the various metaphors found in The Sun. Due to the lack of space, only one example reference will be noted for each metaphorical expression.

  14. The Sun, ‘Bush Orders 100 Combat Jets to the Gulf’, 20 September, 2001: 1.

  15. The Sun, ‘War to the Death’, 18 September, 2001: 13.

  16. The Sun, ‘I Won. Smithy Takes Crown and Makes Howard Shadow Chancellor’, 14 September, 2001: 22.

  17. The Sun, ‘All the World Must Unite to Defeat These Evil Cowards’, 12 September, 2001: 10.

  18. The Sun, ‘Moment the Plane Hit’, 12 September, 2001: 8.

  19. The Sun, ‘Spirit of the Blitz’, 14 September, 2001: 8−9.

  20. The Sun, ‘I Thought Ian Blair Was Recruiting Muslims for the Police — Not al-Qaeda’, 12 July, 2005: 11.

  21. The Sun, ‘Being Anti-war Won’t Save Your’, 16 March, 2004: 11.

  22. The Sun, ‘Bush Protest was Sick after Istanbul Attack’, 24 November, 2003.

  23. The Sun, ‘Let's Hope the Bombers are on Holiday Too’, 3 August, 2005: 8.

  24. The Sun, ‘Deadly Times, Deadly Action’, 23 July, 2005: 8.

  25. The Sun, ‘Frontline Europe’, 12 March, 2004: 6.

  26. The Sun, ‘Madrid Warlord in Britain’, 18 March, 2004: 5.

  27. The Sun, ‘Back in Your Cave, Coward’, 5 August, 2005: 8.

  28. The Sun, ‘A Terrible Tragedy Has Just Befallen My Nation’, 12 September, 2001: 4.

  29. The Sun, ‘No 1 Suspect’, 12 September, 2001: 18.

  30. The Sun, ‘Gang's Mystery Man’, 14 July, 2005: 4.

  31. The Sun, ‘Time for Peace …? Tell it to Bin Laden’, 21 November, 2003.

  32. The Sun, ‘Blitz is Coming …’, 17 September, 2001: 4.

  33. The Sun, ‘7/7: Suicide Squad on CCTV at King's Cross’, 13 July, 2005: 2−3.

  34. The Sun, ‘Osama Car Bombs Threat to Britain’, 18 November, 2003.

  35. The Sun, ‘Bush Hits Bin Where It’ll Hurt’, 25 September, 2001: 49.

  36. The Sun, ‘Alive. Brit's Blown-up Lover Found in a Hospital Bed’, 22 November, 2003.

  37. The Sun, ‘War to the Death’, 18 September, 2001: 13.

  38. The Sun, ‘Nest of Killers’, 26 September, 2001: 11.

  39. The Sun, ‘Forces are Ready to Go’, 28 September, 2001: 6.

  40. The Sun, ‘Bombers at Airport on Visit to al-Qaeda’, 19 July, 2005: 9.

  41. The Sun, ‘Four Seized in Swoop by Bomb Police’, 17 October, 2002.

  42. The Sun, ‘How Could it Happen — Nowhere is Safe from Terrorists’, 12 September, 2001: 24.

  43. The Sun, ‘Operation Death Train’, 12 March, 2004: 2.

  44. The Sun, ‘Enemy Would Rather Die Than Be Caught’, 22 July, 2005: 8.

  45. The Sun, ‘Hate Britain’, 9 July, 2005: 8.

  46. The Sun, ‘Partners in Evil’, 6 October, 2001: 9.

  47. The Sun, ‘We Have No Choice, Says Hero's Mum’, 9 October, 2001: 9.

  48. The Sun, ‘Battle for Osama No 2’, 19 March, 2004: 7.

  49. The Sun, ‘Notting Hill Bank Link to Murders’, 20 September, 2001: 9.

  50. BBC, 16 September, 2001, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/1545411.stm (accessed 29 June, 2009).

  51. The Sun, ‘Nest of Killers’, 26 September, 2001: 11.

  52. The Sun, ‘Murderers Damned by the World’, 12 March, 2004: 4.

  53. The Sun, ‘Bush Hits Bin Where It’ll Hurt’, 25 September, 2001: 49.

  54. The Sun, ‘Gang's Mystery Man’, 14 July, 2005: 4.

  55. The Sun, ‘Gang “Return” to Flat to Get More Explosives’, 27 July, 2005: 4−5.

  56. The Sun, ‘Backpack Butchers. Terror Mob Had Bombs in Rucksacks’, 13 July, 2005: 2.

  57. The Sun, ‘Two Million Unite to Defy Terrorists’, 13 March, 2004: 6.

  58. The Sun, ‘Now Go Get’em George’, 14 September, 2001: 2.

  59. The Sun, ‘Day that Changed the World’, 12 September, 2001: 1.

  60. The Sun, ‘The Train was Cut Open Like a Can of Tuna’, 12 March, 2004: 4.

  61. The Sun, ‘Heavenly Island Turned into Hell’, 16 October, 2002.

  62. The Sun, ‘A Tragic Casualty of War’, 25 July, 2005: 6.

  63. The Sun, ‘Tunnel of Blood’, 8 July, 2005: 6.

  64. The Sun, ‘We Shall Prevail .. Terrorists Shall Not’, 8 July, 2005: 18.

  65. The Sun, ‘They Must Have Killed Thousands’, 12 September, 2001: 2.

  66. Although one has to acknowledge that crime can sometimes also be considered a legitimate enterprise when thinking of ‘criminals’ such as Robin Hood or Bonnie and Clyde.

  67. The Sun, ‘He Mumbled a Prayer, Bag Went Bang … 3 Heroes Piled in’, 22 July, 2005: 6.

  68. The Sun, ‘Bali Outrage Shows We Must Win War on Terror’, 15 October, 2002.

  69. The Sun, ‘Evil Across our Planet’, 8 July, 2005: 17.

  70. The Sun, ‘We’re All American Now’, 14 September, 2001: 13.

  71. The Sun, ‘Shocked at Evil Attack but Proud and Defiant’, 11 July, 2005: 36.

  72. The Sun, ‘Queen Cries along with Us All’, 15 September, 2001: 6.

  73. The Sun, ‘UK..You Will Pay… Bin Laden's on Way’, 3 April, 2004: 11.

  74. The Sun, ‘A Terrible Tragedy Has Just Befallen My Nation’, 12 September, 2001: 4.

  75. The Sun, ‘We Shall Prevail … Terrorists Shall Not’, 8 July, 2005: 18.

  76. The Sun, ‘Abuse of Britain’, 12 July, 2005: 8.

  77. The Sun, ‘Riddle of “Fifth Hijack” Foiled by Cancellation’, 19 September, 2001: 4.

  78. The Sun, ‘Why the World Mustn’t Sleep’, 14 October, 2002.

  79. The Sun, ‘Our Spirit Will Not Be Broken’, 22 July, 2005: 6.

  80. The Sun, ‘I’m So Angry Our Kids are Growing up in World of Terror’, 9 July, 2005: 23.

  81. The Sun, ‘Bush: Al-Qa’ida Did It’, 15 October, 2002.

  82. The Sun, ‘Hook's Web of Evil’, 17 March, 2004: 6.

  83. The Sun, ‘Hook's Web of Evil’, 17 March, 2004: 6.

  84. The Sun, ‘Depths of Evil’, 15 October, 2002.

  85. The Sun, ‘Did They Learn on Pounds 50 CD Rom?’, 13 September, 2001.

  86. The Sun, ‘All the World Must Unite to Defeat These Evil Cowards’, 12 September, 2001: 10.

  87. The Sun, ‘56 m of Hell’, 8 July, 2005: 2.

  88. The Sun, ‘War Zone … It's Armageddon’, 12 September, 2001: 14.

  89. The Sun, ‘You Don’t Expect Your Boy to Turn into One of the 4 Horsemen of the Apocalypse’, 18 July, 2005: 8.

  90. Merriam Webster Online, http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/barbarian (accessed 7 May, 2009).

  91. The Sun, ‘Disciples of Osama … but They Targeted ALL Religions’, 8 July, 2005: 16.

  92. The Sun, ‘Blair. We Have Incontrovertible Evidence bin Laden Did It. We Will Get Him, Stop Him’, 1 October, 2001: 5.

  93. The Sun, ‘Don’t Grass Rant’, 2 April, 2004: 2.

  94. The Sun, ‘We’re All American Now’, 14 September, 2001: 13.

  95. The Sun, ‘Silence That Said It All’, 15 July, 2005: 6.

  96. The Sun, ‘If Blair Used the Laws We Have, We Wouldn’t Need a Stable Door Act’, 22 July, 2005: 9.

  97. The Sun, ‘Slaughter of the Innocent’, 12 March, 2004: 8.

  98. The Sun, ‘Siege Ended in Tragedy but Putin Had No Choice’, 29 October, 2002.

  99. The Sun, ‘I Thought Ian Blair Was Recruiting Muslims for the Police — Not for al-Qaeda’, 12 July, 2005: 11.

  100. The Sun, ‘Horror in My Street’, 8 July, 2005: 11.

  101. The Sun. ‘We’re All American Now’, 14 September, 2001: 13.

  102. The Sun, ‘We’ve Got Him’, 28 July, 2005: 5.

  103. The Sun, ‘Maniac's Passport is Found in Rubble’, 17 September, 2001: 6.

  104. The Sun, ‘Let's Hope the Bombers Are on Holiday Too’, 3 August, 2005: 8.

  105. The Sun, ‘Show Them We Are Not Afraid’, 14 July, 2005: 8.

  106. The Sun, ‘Send Him Bak’, 20 July, 2005: 1.

  107. The Sun, ‘Bush Protest Was Sick after Istanbul Attack’, 24 November, 2003.

  108. The Sun, ‘Outrage as Ken Justifies Suicide Nuts’, 20 July, 2005: 4.

  109. The Sun, ‘America Thought Pentagon Was Safe. Nobody Counted on a Jet Dropping from the Sky’, 12 September, 2001: 16.

  110. For the full text see, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3628069.stm (accessed 11 January, 2012).

  111. The Daily Telegraph, ‘Bin Laden's Truce Offer Rejected as “Absurd”. Taped Message from al-Qa’eda Chief Calls on Europe to Abandon America’, 16 April, 2004: 1.

  112. The Evening Standard, ‘Europe is Offered a Truce in “New Bin Laden Message” ’, 15 April, 2004: 1.

  113. The Sun, ‘Peace off bin Laden’, 16 April, 2004.

  114. Die Welt, ‘ “Wenn ihr unser Blut vergießt, vergießen wir eures”; Osama bin Laden meldet sich nach langer Zeit wieder zu Wort und bietet den Europäern einen Waffenstillstand an’, 16 April, 2004.

  115. Agence France Press, ‘Alleged bin Laden Truce Offer Merits “Contempt”: British FM’, 15 April, 2004.

  116. The Sun, ‘Peace off bin Laden’, 16 April, 2004.

  117. The Observer, ‘Blair Has Lost His Grip’, 18 April, 2004: 2.

  118. Peter Bergen, interviewed by CNN Live Today, ‘Bin Laden Truce Turned Down by European Leaders; Japanese Hostages Released in Iraq’, 15 April, 2004.

  119. For future research it would be highly interesting to see how other countries metaphorise terrorism differently and how these conceptual metaphors function in those cultures to construct counter-terrorism possibilities. For metaphors in the foreign policy of the United States, see for example Campbell (1998), and for the specific issue of metaphors in different cultural spheres, see Littlemore (2003).

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Judith Renner, Christopher Daase, Tine Hanrieder, Rainer Hülsse, Andreas Kruck and Bernhard Zangl as well as the anonymous referees and editors of the Journal of International Relations and Development for their help and support in writing this article.

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Spencer, A. The social construction of terrorism: media, metaphors and policy implications. J Int Relat Dev 15, 393–419 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1057/jird.2012.4

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