Abstract
There is limited research on the use of scripts by novice facilitators (novices) in Facilitated Modelling (FM) workshops. To address this gap, this paper illustrates how novices—supported by scripts—switch between and combine facilitation skills and competencies to successfully manage FM workshops and achieve outcomes. This illustration is based on a micro-level analysis of a transcript from a Viable System Model workshop held in a food cooperative in Copenhagen, Denmark. Through our findings we identify two distinct script-supported FM behaviours and related script-supported facilitation practices that enable novices to (a) acquire skills and competencies; and (b) switch between and combine skills and competencies to successfully manage workshops and achieve outcomes. Our study links micro-level considerations to a meta-level framework that relates the script-supported FM behaviours and practices to different workshop outcomes, thereby extending script-supported FM theory. Best practice guidelines for the development and use of scripts by novices are also provided.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The names of participants are not revealed for confidentiality reasons.
References
Ackermann F (1996). Participants’ perceptions of the role of facilitators using group decision support systems. Group Decision and Negotiation Journal 5 (1): 93–112.
Ackermann F (2011). Getting ‘messy’ with problems: The challenges of teaching ‘soft’ OR. Informs Transactions on Education 12 (1): 55–64.
Ackermann F (2012). Problem structuring methods ‘in the Dock’: Arguing the case for soft OR. European Journal of Operational Research 219 (3): 652–658.
Ackermann F, Andersen DF, Eden C and Richardson GP (2010). Using a group decision support system to add value to group model building. System Dynamics Review 26 (4): 335–346.
Ackermann F, Andersen DF, Eden C and Richardson GP (2011). ScriptsMap: A tool for designing multi-method policy-making workshops. Omega 39 (4): 427–434.
Andersen DF and Richardson GF (1997). Scripts for group model building. System Dynamics Review 13 (2): 107–129.
Azadegan A, Papamichail KN and Sampaio P (2013). Applying collaborative process design to user requirements elicitation: A case study. Computers in Industry 64 (7): 798–812.
Beer S (1981). Brain of the Firm. John Wiley & Sons Ltd: Chichester.
Beer S (1984). The viable system model: Its provenance, development, methodology and pathology. Journal of the Operational Research Society 35 (1): 7–25.
Beer S (1985). Diagnosing the System. John Wiley & Sons Ltd: Chichester.
Briggs RO, de Vreede GJ and Nunamaker JR (2003). Collaboration engineering with thinklets to pursue sustained success with group support systems. Journal of Management Information Systems 19 (4): 31–64.
Britton GA and McCallion H (1989). Application of the VSM to the trade training network in New Zealand. In: Espejo R and Harnden R (eds). The Viable System Model: Interpretations and Applications of Stafford Beer’s VSM 1989. John Wiley & Sons Ltd: West Sussex, pp 145–174.
Carreras AL and Kaur P (2011). Teaching problem structuring methods: Improving understanding through meaningful learning. Informs Transactions on Education 12 (1): 20–30.
Checkland P and Holwell S (2007). Action research: Its nature and validity. In: Kock N (ed). Information Systems Action Research 2007. Springer-Verlag: New York, pp 3–17.
Clawson VK, Bostrom RP and Anson R (1993). The role of the facilitator in computer-supported meetings. Small Group Research 24 (4): 547–565.
Córdoba-Pachón JR (2011). Abstracting and engaging: Two modes of systems thinking education. Informs Transactions on Education 12 (1): 43–54.
Creswell DJW (1994). Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Annotated edn. Sage Publications: London.
Cunliffe AL (2011). Crafting qualitative research: Morgan and Smircich 30 years on. Organizational Research Methods 14 (4): 647–673.
Denzin NK and Lincoln YS (2003). The Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theories and Issues. 2nd edn. Sage Publications: London.
de Vreede GJ and Briggs RO (2005). Collaborative engineering: designing repeatable processes for high-value collaborative tasks. Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 03-06 Juni Hawaii.
de Vreede GJ, Kolfschoten GL and Briggs RO (2006). ThinkLets: A collaboration engineering pattern language. International Journal of Computer Applications in Technology 25 (2/3): 140–154.
Eden C (1990). The unfolding nature of group decision support—Two dimensions of skill. In: Eden C and Radford J (eds). Tackling Strategic Problems. The Role of Group Decision Support 1990. Sage publications: London, pp 48–52.
Eden C, Ackermann F, Bryson J, Richardson GP, Andersen D and Finn C (2009). Integrating modes of policy analysis and strategic management practice: Requisite elements and dilemmas. Journal of the Operational Research Society 60 (1): 3–13.
Eden C and Huxham C (2006). Researching organizations using action research. In: Clegg S, Hardy C, Lawrence TB and Nord WR (eds). The Sage Handbook of Organization Studies 2006. Sage: London, pp 388–408.
Espejo R and Harnden R (1989). The Viable System Model: Interpretations and Applications of Stafford Beer's VSM. Wiley: Chichester.
Espinosa A, Harnden J and Walker J (2008). A complexity approach to sustainability—Stafford beer revisited. European Journal of Operational Research 187 (2): 636–651.
Espinosa A and Walker J (2011). A Complexity Approach to Sustainability. Theory and Application. Imperial College Press: London.
Espinosa A and Walker J (2013). Managing complexity in practice: A viable system model intervention in an irish eco-community. European Journal of Operational Research 225 (1): 118–129.
Franco LA (2006). Forms of conversation and problem structuring methods: A conceptual development. Journal of the Operational Research Society 57 (7): 813–821.
Franco LA and Montibeller G (2010). Facilitated modelling in operational research. Invited review. European Journal of Operational Research 205 (3): 489–500.
Franco LA and Rouwette EAJA (2011). Decision development in facilitated modelling workshops. European Journal of Operational Research 212 (1): 164–178.
Gordon C (2013). Beyond the observer’s paradox: The audio-recorder as a resource for the display of identity. Qualitative Research 13 (3): 299–317.
Gregory WJ and Romm NRA (2001). Critical facilitation: Learning through intervention in group processes. Management Learning 32 (4): 453–467.
Hindle G (2011). Teaching soft systems methodology and a blueprint for a module. Informs Transactions on Education 12 (1): 31–40.
Hoffman RR (1998). How can expertise be defined? Implications of research from cognitive psychology. In: Williams R, Faulkner W and Fleck J (eds). Exploring Expertise 1998. Macmillan: Basingstoke, pp 81–100.
Holmberg BA (1989). Developing organisational competence in business. In: Espejo R and Harnden R (eds). The Viable System Model: Interpretations and Applications of Stafford Beer’s VSM 1989. John Wiley & Sons Ltd: West Sussex, pp 145–174.
Hovmand PS, Andersen DF, Rouwette EAJA, Richardson GP, Rux K and Calhoun A (2012). Group model-building ‘scripts’ as a collaborative planning tool. Systems Research and Behavioral Science 29 (2): 179–193.
Huxham C and Cropper S (1994). From many to one—And back. An exploration of some components of facilitation. Omega 22 (1): 1–11.
Huxham C and Vangen S (2003). Researching organizational practice through action research: Case studies and design choices. Organizational Research Methods 6 (3): 383–403.
Jackson MC (1989). Evaluating the managerial significance of the VSM. In: Espejo R and Harnden R (eds). The Viable System Model: Interpretations and Applications of Stafford Beer’s VSM 1989. John Wiley & Sons Ltd: West Sussex, pp 407–439.
Keys P (2006). On becoming expert in the use of problem structuring methods. Journal of the Operational Research Society 57 (7): 822–829.
Keys P (2007a). Developing a design science for the use of problem structuring methods. Systemic Practice and Action Research 20 (4): 333–349.
Keys P (2007b). Knowledge work, design science and problem structuring methodologies. Systems Research and Behavioral Science 24 (5): 523–535.
Kolfschoten GL, de Hengst-Bruggeling M and de Vreede GJ (2007). Issues in the design of facilitated collaboration processes. Group Decision and Negotiation Journal 16 (4): 347–361.
Kolfschoten GL, de Vreede GJ, Briggs RO and Sol HG (2010). Collaboration ‘engineerability’. Group Decision and Negotiation 19 (3): 301–321.
Kolfschoten GL and de Vreede GJ (2011). A training approach for the transition of repeatable collaboration processes for practitioners. Group Decision and Negotiation 20 (3): 347–371.
Labov W (1972). Some principles of linguistic methodology. Language in Society 1 (1): 97–120.
Lincoln YS and Guba EG (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Sage: Beverly Hills, CA.
Liu F and Maitlis S (2014). Emotional dynamics and strategizing processes: A study of strategic conversations in top team meetings. Journal of Management Studies 51 (2): 202–234.
Luna-Reyes LF, Martinez-Moyano IJ, Pardo TA, Cresswell AM, Andersen DF and Richardson GP (2006). Anatomy of group model-building intervention: Building dynamic theory from case study research. System Dynamics Review 22 (4): 291–320.
Malik F (2008). Strategie des Managements komplexer Systeme. Ein Beitrag zur Management-Kybernetik evolutionärer Systeme. (10. Auflage) Haupt Verlag: Bern.
McCroskey J (1982). Communication competence and performance: A research and pedagogical perspective. Communication Education 31 (1): 1–7.
McFadzean E and Nelson T (1998). Facilitating problem-solving groups: A conceptual model. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 19 (1): 6–13.
McKay J and Marshall P (2001). The dual imperatives of action research. Information Technology and People 14 (1): 46–59.
Mingers J (2011). Soft OR comes of age—But not everywhere! Omega 39 (6): 729–741.
Mingers J and Rosenhead J (2004). Invited review. Problem structuring methods in action. European Journal of Operational Research 152 (3): 530–554.
Mingers J and Rosenhead J (2011). An overview of related methods: VSM, system dynamics, and decision analysis. In: Rosenhead J and Mingers J (eds). Rational Analysis for a Problematic World Revisited. Problem Structuring Methods for Complexity, Uncertainty and Conflict 2011. John Wiley & Sons Ltd: Chichester, pp 267–288.
Nelson T and McFadzean E (1998). Facilitating problem-solving groups: Facilitator competences. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 19 (2): 72–82.
Nunamaker Jr JF, Briggs RO, Mittleman DD, Vogel D and Balthazard PA (1997). Lessons from a dozen years of group support systems research: A discussion of lab and field findings. Journal of Management Information Systems 13 (3): 163–207.
Ormerod R (2014). OR competences: The demands of problem structuring methods. EURO Journal on Decision Processes 2: 313–340.
Papamichail KN, Alves G, French S, Yang JB and Snowdon R (2007). Facilitation practices in decision workshops. Journal of the Operational Research Society 58: 614–632.
Paucar-Caceres A (2010). Mapping the changes in management science: A review of`soft’ OR/MS articles published in Omega (1973–2008). Omega 38 (1–2): 46–56.
Phillips LD and Phillips MC (1993). Facilitated work groups: Theory and practice. Journal of the Operational Research Society 44 (6): 533–549.
Poole MS, Keyton J and Frey LR (1999). Group communication methodology: Issues and considerations. In: Frey LR, Gouran DS and Poole MS (eds). The Handbook of Group Communication Theory and Research 1999. Sage: Thousand Oaks CA, pp 92–112.
Poole MS, Van de Ven AH, Dooley K and Holmes ME (eds) (2000). Organizational Change and Innovation Processes: Theory and Methods for Research. Oxford University Press: New York.
Preece G, Shaw D and Hayashi H (2013). Using the viable system model (VSM) to structure information processing complexity in disaster response. European Journal of Operational Research 224 (1): 209–218.
Rapley T (2004). Interviews. In: Seale C, Gobo G, Gubrium J and Silverman D (eds). Qualitative Research Practice. Sage Publications: London, pp 15–37.
Rosenhead J (2006). Past, present and future of problem structuring methods. Journal of the Operational Research Society 57 (7): 759–765.
Rosenhead J and Mingers J (2001). Rational Analysis for a Problematic World Revisited. Problem Structuring Methods for Complexity, Uncertainty and Conflict. John Wiley & Sons Ltd: Chichester.
Tavella E and Papadopoulos T (2014). Expert and novice facilitated modelling: A case of a viable system model workshop in a local food network. Journal of the Operational Research Society 66: 247–264.
Weingart LR (1997). How did they do that? The ways and means of studying group processes. In: Cummings LL and Staw BM (eds). Research in Organizational Behavior 1997. JAI Press: Greenwich, CT, pp 184–239.
Weingart LR, Hyder EB and Prietula MJ (1996). Knowledge matters: The effect of tactical descriptions on negotiation behavior and outcome. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70 (6): 1205–1217.
Westley F and Waters JA (1988). Group facilitation skills for managers. Management Education and Development 19 (2): 134–43.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Tavella, E., Papadopoulos, T. Novice facilitators and the use of scripts for managing facilitated modelling workshops. J Oper Res Soc 66, 1967–1988 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1057/jors.2015.7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/jors.2015.7