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Gender-based perceptions of the 2001 anthrax attacks: Implications for outreach and preparedness

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Abstract

Extensive research dealing with gender-based perceptions of fear of crime has generally found that women express greater levels of fear compared to men. Further, studies have found that women engage in more self-protective behaviors in response to fear of crime, as well as have different levels of confidence in government efficacy relative to men. The majority of these studies have focused on violent and property crime; little research has focused on gender-based perceptions of the threat of bioterrorism. Using data from a national survey conducted by ABC News/Washington Post, this study contrasted perceptions of safety and fear in response to anthrax attacks among male and female respondents. Results indicated some gender differences in perceptions and responses to possible anthrax exposure, although not all achieved statistical significance. Results are discussed in relation to their implications for criminological theory, security and bioterrorism preparedness.

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Notes

  1. Jenkins GAO testimony report at www.gao.gov/products/GAO-10-193.

  2. While these data were collected from across the different regions of the United States, the small N (508) may limit the national representativeness of these data and as such for the purposes of this study ‘national’ is conceptualized as descriptive only, rather than fully representative and generalizable to the population of the United States.

  3. Coefficient α is one of the most commonly used measures of reliability. Not only is it influenced by the average correlation among items (internal consistency), but also by the number of items in the scale (Nunnally, 1978). As a result, it may be difficult to obtain a high α, especially in longitudinal data where variables present at one wave may not be present at the next. Psychometricians (for example, Cronbach, 1970) have warned of this limitation, but it is often overlooked (Welsh, 2001). Further, α coefficients in the 0.40–0.50 range have generally been considered acceptable for etiological research (Thorndike, 1971).

  4. To minimize the risk of α inflation a Bonferroni correction of P<0.025 was employed for this series of tests.

  5. Because the results of the independent sample t-test using the ‘other responses to anthrax scale’ did not reveal a statistically significant difference between males and females on that scale results of the regression analysis for that outcome are omitted. Results of four models run are available upon request.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Justice Studies, Montclair State University, Dickson Hall, One Normal Avenue, Montclair, 07043, New Jersey, USA

    Christopher Salvatore

  2. Department of Sociology, Towson University, Anthropology, and Criminal Justice, 8000 York Road, Towson, 21252, Maryland, USA

    Brian J Gorman

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  1. Christopher Salvatore
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  2. Brian J Gorman
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Correspondence to Christopher Salvatore.

Additional information

Disclaimer The original collector of the data, ICPSR, and the relevant funding agency bear no responsibility for uses of this collection or for interpretations or inferences based upon such uses

An earlier draft of this article was presented at the 2011 meeting of the American Society of Criminology in Washington DC.

Appendices

Appendix A

Table A1

Table A1 Listing of survey questions used for this study
Full size table

Appendix B

Items contained in outcome scales

Mail handling response to anthrax scale

Question 11c: Since September 11, have you or has anyone in your household done the following … Started to exercise caution in exercise caution in opening your mail?

Question 12a: As far as exercising caution with your mail, are you or is someone in your housing (done the following) … Looking it over more carefully than usual?

Question 12b: As far as exercising caution with your mail, are you or is someone in your housing (done the following) … Throwing away unfamiliar mail without opening it?

Question 12d: As far as exercising caution with your mail, are you or is someone in your housing (done the following) … Washing your hands after handling the mail?

Other responses to anthrax scale

Question 11a: Since September 11, have you or has anyone in your household done the following … Brought a supply of antibiotics in case of biological attack?

Question 11b: Since September 11, have you or has anyone in your household done the following … Spoken with a doctor about anthrax or some other biological attack?

Question 11d: Since September 11, have you or has anyone in your household done the following … Gathered information about what to do in case of anthrax or other biological attack?

Question 11e: Since September 11, have you or has anyone in your household done the following … Started avoiding crowded places such as shopping malls because of the chance of anthrax or other biological attack?

Question 11f: Since September 11, have you or has anyone in your household done the following … Tried to reduce the amount of mail you handle by asking people to send you e-mail instead?

Question 12c: As far as exercising caution with your mail, are you or is someone in your housing (done the following) … Wearing clothes or a mask when handling mail?

Questions 12e: As far as exercising caution with your mail, are you or is someone in your housing (done the following) … Doing anything else with your mail?

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Salvatore, C., Gorman, B. Gender-based perceptions of the 2001 anthrax attacks: Implications for outreach and preparedness. Secur J 27, 399–420 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1057/sj.2012.36

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